The Surroundings of Man :: essays research papers

The Surroundings of ManIs man really born with a evil persona or a persona that isworthy as an angel or is man born naked for a reason because hehas nonhing to bring to this world but himself? A person is notinnately any characteristic, he was brought to the world fromlove and must choose to love or not. M some other Theresa explainsthis best by saying, Everyone was created to be loved and tolove. The novel, master key of the Flies, has characters that were notbrought to the island good or evil, but has characters thatchanged because the atmosphere that they are in changed them. Because of the environment that you are in makes you become acertain person, you change with the stack of yourenvironment, and interact with the condition of yourenvironment. Major events affect your life in drastic ways. A conjugal union,for instance is a major occurrence and different kinds ofmarriages can drastically change your life. A marriage that isabusive emotionally and physically can make your l ife full ofhatred, you could be depressed, you could see your self as little aperson than you are, and you could also be a frightened personbecause of it. A marriage completely different is one full of love. A marriage like that can cause a person to act blissful, to go outand do more things on account of your support system, and youcan line of battle other people to have loving lives like yours. All thecharacters, as one, are in a kind of marriage together, they livedconcurrently and supported each(prenominal) other. The marriage wasabusive, they taunted each other, especially gluttonous. They tauntedhim at first meeting by saying this, Hes not Fatty... his realnames Piggy(21). On account of that Piggy felt not worthy toother characters in the novel and didnt get to show his moreintelligent locating to everyone. Events are a primary device thatcauses people to act a certain way. If the characters didnt liveso close together and taunt Piggy, would he have acted the wayhe did th rough the course of the novel?Being brought into particular situations can alter your life. To cite an instance, a child being interpreted from his home, the onlyplace he knew, and put into a cherish home would be a particularsituation that could alter ones life. The other place he lived inmay have been harmful to his well-being and it was a positiveoccurrence that he was brought out of his home. On the otherhand, the foster home could affect his well-being in a more

Educating Rita by Willy Russell :: English Literature

Educating RitaEducating Rita is a story written by Willy Russell. He was born inWhiston, which is just outside Liverpool. When he was five his mum anddad move to Knowsley, on an estate full of Liverpudlians who taughthim how to talk properly. It is about two main characters Rita andFrank. Rita is a literature student at the Open University. This is auniversity that is used as a way of enabling adult students, likeRita. Frank is a tutor at the Open University but unlike the normalupper course of instruction tutors frank is a normal scruffy old man, this shocksRita.Rita wanted to study and learn here, and so the fear and pressure fromher friends made her join in with the others well-nigh her. She didntwant to become different from her family and friends, nor those aroundher, and so blocked the thought that she wanted more from her lifeId just play another record or buy another dress an stop worryinShe put this off because of the peer pressure from the other workingclass people, she d idnt want to be different and roll them so wentalong with their assumptions of women as low, and this put her off fora while.Rita sees the middle class as totally different from herself, andalthough doesnt want to be working class, doesnt feeling she will beaccepted as middle class either. She has the idea that all middleclass individuals are free, and stereotypes, making sweepinggeneralisations. She assumes they all rust wholemeal bread, flora, andwatch the BBC, as this is seen as more intellectually stimulating thanITV, the channel that some(prenominal) of the working class watch. This shows thatshe stereotypes certain groups of people from what she has heard,instead of her let views, she doesnt wait to get to know them beforejudging.As Rita believes herself to be sophisticated and well read, she hasnamed herself after an author. Her real name is Susan, but Rita MaeBrown is a adult author, and as Rita likes her books, shelaughably adopts her name and believes she is making he rself seem moresophisticated, once again showing her complete misunderstanding thatsexually explicit novels are assort as good literature. Such anaction again indicates her naive outlook and lack of literaryawareness at the beginning of the play.There are many themes during the play, change is probably the mostimportant as it shows how an individual can develop and learn in bothpositive and negative ways, the play indicates the relay stationchanging from one extreme to the other, eventually discovering a happy

Macbeth: Not All Men Are Heroic :: essays research papers

Macbeth Not All Men Are HeroicMacbeth was written while when Scotland lacked a wide-cut Leader to defend itfrom a Norwasian invasion. During this dangerous situation, Macbeth stood out asthe most commanding figure by defeating the rebel army. His thrill towards thewitches prophecies all confirmed his hopes of beseeming the King and replacingKing Duncan, who lacked the power and courage to save his country from thisinvasion.In this essay, I will discuss Macbeth during the many experiences that he hadfaced and count across and I will show how these experiences and pressures thathe faced helped with the conclusion and theme of the play which yet has to beunderstood.The first signs that tell us of Macbeths thoughts of bonny King werefound when the King proclaimed his son, Malcolm, the heir to the Scottish throne,and Macbeth considered murder to overcome this obstacle that would prevent himfrom becoming the King.The prince of Cumberland That is a stepOn which I must fall down, or els e oerleap,For in my way it lies. Stars, hide your firesLet not light see my black and deep desires.The eye wink at the hand yet let that be,Which the eye fears, when it is done, to see.(Act 1Scene 4ln.55)When Lady Macbeth heard of her husbands success and read the letter, wealmost immediately feel that a new source of power had appared in the drama. Herwords reflected a great knowledge of her husband and her practical approach toproblems as seen in the following 2 verses.Glacis thou art, and Cowdor, and shalt beWhat thou are promised. Yet do I fear thy nature.It is too full o the milk of human kindnessTo catch the nearby way. Thou wouldst be greatArt not without ambition, but withoutThe illness should attend it. What though wouldst highly,That wouldst though holilywouldst not play falseAnd yet wouldst falsely win. Thouldst have, great GlacisThat which cries"Thus though must do,"if though have itAnd that which rather thou dost fear to doThan wishest should be undone. Hie t hee hither,That I may sprout my spirits in thine earAnd chastise with the valor of my tongueAll that impedes thee from the golden roundWhich fate and metaphysical aid doth seemTo have thee laureled withal.(Act 1Scene 5ln.14O, never Shall sun that morrow seeYour face, my thane, is a book where menMay read strange matters. To beguile the time,Look alike(p) the timebear welcome in your eye,Your hand, your tongue, look like the innocent flower,But be the serpent undert.

My Ideal Teacher Essay -- Teaching Teachers Education Essays

My Ideal Teacher When I think about teachers that I pay off had in the past, several different ones come to my mind. Each of these educators stands out in my mind for a variety of diverse reasons. Whether it is their sense of humor, their tactfulness, their love of the rout matter, their fanatical and sporadic behavior, or their yearning to be childish themselves, I can still remember at least one quality of either teacher I have ever encountered. Every one of these teachers conveyed subject material to their students just as they were educated and employed to do. However, I trust that every professional in the world has an abundance of opportunity for improvement teachers could discover and improve themselves merely by having an open mind and observing one another. If I could construct the ideal teacher for me, I would only have to focus on three main aspects of the individual. These three qualities would be conducting a fun and raise class, having organization and ge nuine comprehension of subject material, and developing a need to accept and have a constructive relationship with all students. Because of the most juvenile technology children today expect to be entertained by some other means than twiddling their thumbs. This need is not only present in the radical setting it is everywhere they go, including school. Therefore, teachers today have to make learning more enjoyable than it ever has been. Students are aware that at school they have set rules to follow and expectations from their teachers. However, school can be fun if the teachers make it that way. There are numerous ways that a teacher can accomplish this. For example, a teacher could do something as simple as having a j... ...d what my major is from week to week. They gained my respect in high school, and I, in turn, gave them respect. These are the teachers that I forget never forget because they will never let me forget. I think that all students should experience some teachers like I have. In conclusion, in the real number world some students will graduate from college, some students will be teachers, some teachers will just teach, and some teachers will teach with love. I insufficiency to be that teacher. The one that teaches with love and passion for what I am doing. This is why I have taken into account every teacher that I have ever encountered and created my ideal teacher the teacher who is exciting, knowledgeable, and friendly. It is those teachers that I will remember indefinitely and with distinction, and this is also how I intend to be remembered by my students.

Effects of Alcoholism and Other Misdiagnosed Ailments on Liver Function

To make headway expand our knowledge on the frigh ten dollar billing topic of tipsiness and its corresponding effects on the Liver, researchers and interest inquirers like should make sure they fully understand what the term alcoholism really means. Alcoholism doesnt have its own section in DSM-V however, it is considered angiotensin-converting enzyme of the ten substance related disorders that the manual describes. To be classified as a substance abuse disorder, eleven different criteria need to be met. Alcoholism is further broken down into two different severities as well dependence and abuse. Directly extend toed by ingestion of alcohol is the systems riddle the liver-colored. Not only does the liver filter blood coming from the digestive tract before passing it to the rest of the body but it excessively converts nutrients into substances that our body can use and stores them. Some noted vitamins that can be affected by a faulty liver include but are not limited to vitamins B1, B3, B6 (Thiamine, Niacin, Pyridoxine), folic acid and vitamin A. Complex processes involving alcohol dehydrogenase (ADH), aldehyde dehydrogenase (ALDH) and Glucogenesis will later be broken down more specifically at a cellular level. fundamental research has indicated that an overabundance of alcohol in a body system can decrease the rate of metabolism and chemical detoxification and can adversely affect digestion. With enough alcohol, the liver can fall so behind with its duties that liver tissue can actually die and further shut this bouncy harmonium down completely. There is the possibility of misdiagnosis, however. Other diseases such as Chronic Liver Disease, Hepatitis B and Hepatitis C have also been linked to liver stroke that can mimic symptoms of alcoholism. The goal of this research paper... ...http//widelantern.com/2011/11/drug-alcohol-tobacco-use-broken-down-by-raceethinicity/Fenway Health (Fenway Health) http//www.fenwayhealth.org/site/News2?p age=NewsArticle&id=5203&news_iv_ctrl=0&abbr=FCHC_Fried, D. G. (2001). Liver Comparative Anatomy.Genetics of Alcohol lend oneself Disorders (National give on Alcohol Abuse and Alcoholism (NIAAA))http//www.niaaa.nih.gov/alcohol-health/overview-alcohol-consumption/alcohol- use-disorders/genetics-alcohol-use-disordersKiefer, D. F., Israel, D. Y., & Martino, D. S. (2003). Alcoholism.NIAAA Publications (NIAAA Publications) http//pubs.niaaa.nih.gov/publications/combine/FAQs.htmSeitz, H., & Stickel, F. (2006). Biological chemistry Risk factors and mechanisms of Hepatocarcinogenesis with special emphasis on alcohol and oxidative stress.(4th ed., Vol. 387, pp. 349-360). Effects of Alcoholism and Other Misdiagnosed Ailments on Liver FunctionTo further expand our knowledge on the frightening topic of Alcoholism and its corresponding effects on the Liver, researchers and interested inquirers alike should make sure they fully understand what the term Alcoholism really means. Alc oholism doesnt have its own section in DSM-V however, it is considered one of the ten substance related disorders that the manual describes. To be classified as a substance abuse disorder, eleven different criteria need to be met. Alcoholism is further broken down into two different severities as well dependence and abuse. Directly affected by ingestion of alcohol is the bodys filter the liver. Not only does the liver filter blood coming from the digestive tract before passing it to the rest of the body but it also converts nutrients into substances that our body can use and stores them. Some noted vitamins that can be affected by a faulty liver include but are not limited to vitamins B1, B3, B6 (Thiamine, Niacin, Pyridoxine), folic acid and vitamin A. Complex processes involving alcohol dehydrogenase (ADH), aldehyde dehydrogenase (ALDH) and Glucogenesis will later be broken down more specifically at a cellular level. Thorough research has indicated that an overabundance of a lcohol in a body system can decrease the rate of metabolism and chemical detoxification and can adversely affect digestion. With enough alcohol, the liver can fall so behind with its duties that liver tissue can actually die and further shut this vital organ down completely. There is the possibility of misdiagnosis, however. Other diseases such as Chronic Liver Disease, Hepatitis B and Hepatitis C have also been linked to liver failure that can mimic symptoms of alcoholism. The goal of this research paper... ...http//widelantern.com/2011/11/drug-alcohol-tobacco-use-broken-down-by-raceethinicity/Fenway Health (Fenway Health) http//www.fenwayhealth.org/site/News2?page=NewsArticle&id=5203&news_iv_ctrl=0&abbr=FCHC_Fried, D. G. (2001). Liver Comparative Anatomy.Genetics of Alcohol Use Disorders (National Institute on Alcohol Abuse and Alcoholism (NIAAA))http//www.niaaa.nih.gov/alcohol-health/overview-alcohol-consumption/alcohol- use-disorders/genetics-alcohol-use-disordersKiefer, D. F., Israel, D. Y., & Martino, D. S. (2003). Alcoholism.NIAAA Publications (NIAAA Publications) http//pubs.niaaa.nih.gov/publications/combine/FAQs.htmSeitz, H., & Stickel, F. (2006). Biological chemistry Risk factors and mechanisms of Hepatocarcinogenesis with special emphasis on alcohol and oxidative stress.(4th ed., Vol. 387, pp. 349-360).

Effects of Alcoholism and Other Misdiagnosed Ailments on Liver Function

To further expand our knowledge on the frightening topic of intoxi batchtism and its corresponding effects on the Liver, enquiryers and interested inquirers alike should pull for certain they fully understand what the term Alcoholism really means. Alcoholism doesnt have its own section in DSM-V however, it is considered one of the ten nucleus connect disorders that the manual describes. To be classified as a substance ab intake disorder, eleven different criteria need to be met. Alcoholism is further embarrassed raven into two different severities as well dependence and abuse. Directly affected by ingestion of alcohol is the bodys filter the liver-colored. non exactly does the liver filter blood coming from the digestive tract before passing it to the rest of the body but it also converts nutrients into substances that our body burn down use and stores them. Some noted vitamins that can be affected by a faulty liver include but are not peculiar(a) to vitamins B1, B3, B6 (Thiamine, Niacin, Pyridoxine), folic acetous and vitamin A. Complex processes involving alcohol dehydrogenase (ADH), aldehyde dehydrogenase (ALDH) and Glucogenesis will later be broken nap more specifically at a cellular level. Thorough research has indicated that an inordinateness of alcohol in a body system can decrease the rate of metabolism and chemical detoxification and can adversely affect digestion. With replete alcohol, the liver can fall so behind with its duties that liver tissue can actually die and further shut this vital organ down completely. in that respect is the possibility of misdiagnosis, however. Other diseases such as Chronic Liver Disease, Hepatitis B and Hepatitis C have also been linked to liver failure that can mimic symptoms of alcoholism. The goal of this research paper... ...http//widelantern.com/2011/11/drug-alcohol-tobacco-use-broken-down-by-raceethinicity/Fenway Health (Fenway Health) http//www.fenwayhealth.org/site/News2?page=NewsArt icle&id=5203&news_iv_ctrl=0&abbr=FCHC_Fried, D. G. (2001). Liver Comparative Anatomy.Genetics of Alcohol Use Disorders (National Institute on Alcohol Abuse and Alcoholism (NIAAA))http//www.niaaa.nih.gov/alcohol-health/overview-alcohol-consumption/alcohol- use-disorders/genetics-alcohol-use-disordersKiefer, D. F., Israel, D. Y., & Martino, D. S. (2003). Alcoholism.NIAAA Publications (NIAAA Publications) http//pubs.niaaa.nih.gov/publications/combine/FAQs.htmSeitz, H., & Stickel, F. (2006). Biological chemistry Risk factors and mechanisms of Hepatocarcinogenesis with special emphasis on alcohol and oxidative stress.(4th ed., Vol. 387, pp. 349-360). Effects of Alcoholism and Other Misdiagnosed Ailments on Liver FunctionTo further expand our knowledge on the frightening topic of Alcoholism and its corresponding effects on the Liver, researchers and interested inquirers alike should make sure they fully understand what the term Alcoholism really means. Alcoholism doesnt ha ve its own section in DSM-V however, it is considered one of the ten substance related disorders that the manual describes. To be classified as a substance abuse disorder, eleven different criteria need to be met. Alcoholism is further broken down into two different severities as well dependence and abuse. Directly affected by ingestion of alcohol is the bodys filter the liver. Not only does the liver filter blood coming from the digestive tract before passing it to the rest of the body but it also converts nutrients into substances that our body can use and stores them. Some noted vitamins that can be affected by a faulty liver include but are not limited to vitamins B1, B3, B6 (Thiamine, Niacin, Pyridoxine), folic acid and vitamin A. Complex processes involving alcohol dehydrogenase (ADH), aldehyde dehydrogenase (ALDH) and Glucogenesis will later be broken down more specifically at a cellular level. Thorough research has indicated that an overabundance of alcohol in a body system can decrease the rate of metabolism and chemical detoxification and can adversely affect digestion. With enough alcohol, the liver can fall so behind with its duties that liver tissue can actually die and further shut this vital organ down completely. There is the possibility of misdiagnosis, however. Other diseases such as Chronic Liver Disease, Hepatitis B and Hepatitis C have also been linked to liver failure that can mimic symptoms of alcoholism. The goal of this research paper... ...http//widelantern.com/2011/11/drug-alcohol-tobacco-use-broken-down-by-raceethinicity/Fenway Health (Fenway Health) http//www.fenwayhealth.org/site/News2?page=NewsArticle&id=5203&news_iv_ctrl=0&abbr=FCHC_Fried, D. G. (2001). Liver Comparative Anatomy.Genetics of Alcohol Use Disorders (National Institute on Alcohol Abuse and Alcoholism (NIAAA))http//www.niaaa.nih.gov/alcohol-health/overview-alcohol-consumption/alcohol- use-disorders/genetics-alcohol-use-disordersKiefer, D. F., Israel, D. Y ., & Martino, D. S. (2003). Alcoholism.NIAAA Publications (NIAAA Publications) http//pubs.niaaa.nih.gov/publications/combine/FAQs.htmSeitz, H., & Stickel, F. (2006). Biological chemistry Risk factors and mechanisms of Hepatocarcinogenesis with special emphasis on alcohol and oxidative stress.(4th ed., Vol. 387, pp. 349-360).

11th and 12th section review

What was Americas first major industry? In what region of the state did it center? Lowell, Massachusetts(Northeast). Textiles became Americas first major industry. 2. Name three of this eras central inventors and their respective crafts. John Deere perfected the plow. Cyrus McCormick, in 1834, received a patent for a reaping machine, a horse-drawn device that allowed one man to cut and stack ten to twelve acres of grain in a single day. Samuel Colt made his brandmark on the firearms industry.He patented and manufactured a six-shooter, a pistol with a revolving cylinder which allowed a user to fire six times before reloading. . wherefore was the discovery of anthracite coal in western Pennsylvania important? American farm production grew at a tremendous rate. In 1789, farmers had broadly eked out only enough to feed their own families. But by 1861, the United States was producing nearly $2 billion worth of agricultural products each year. 4. How did the invention of the cotton g in increase the protestences between the South and the rest of the nation?The growth of the cotton kingdom, however, widened the gap between the South on the one apply and the North and the West on the other. Cotton growing, for one thing, revitalized slavery. In 1790, slavery had seemed an increasingly unprofitable and dying institution. With the advent of the cotton gin, however, many planters horizon that slavery was necessary again. 1. Name deuce methods of surfacing roads in the nineteenth century. Corduroy roads and toll roads 2. What event marked the antecedent of the canal era?The canal era began in 1817, when New York, at the urging of Governor DeWitt Clinton, began building a canal from Albany to Lake Erie. 3. What was Americas most important method of transportation by 1861? The clipper ship 4. What was the first economi predicty successful railroad in America? Who designed its first steam engine? Balti more than & Ohio (B & O) Railroad and Peter Cooper 5. What syste m of carrying mail across the continent began in 1860? What invention put it out of business? Semaphore and Telegraph 1 . What was the most controversial right movement of the first half of the nineteenth century?Who was its most important leader? Without doubt the most controversial reform movement in the first half of the nineteenth century was abolitionism, the movement to eliminate slavery and William Lloyd Garrison. 2. What were the two important trends in American education in the early 1800s? Two important trends developed in the reform of American education during this period the growth of both public education and teacher education. nigh schooling since colonial days had been a private affair. 3. What is the difference between temperance and Prohibition?Reformers eventually replaced their call for temperance, or moderate drinking, with a call for the outright prohibition, or banning, of the sale and consumption of alcohol. 4. How did utopian reformers differ from other re formers? Most reformers focused on a single major problem in society, such as prison reform r alcohol, and aimed at eliminating the problem throughout society. Utopian reformers, on the other hand, sought to establish small, perfect communities that would distribute as models tor the retorm ot society at large.A utopia is an ideally perfect place. 5. Which authors defended romanticisms idea that man is basically good? Which authors denied this idea? 6. How did the Journalistic approach of the New York Sun differ from that of the New York Tribune? He Sun contained sensational accounts of murders, scandals, and other lurid events to appeal to the baser tastes of readers. The Tribune, edited by Horace Greeley, supported reform fforts and attempted to educate and uplift its readers.The two approaches proved equally successful, and both the Sun and the Tribune attracted readers even outside of New York. 1 . Why did western Pennsylvania become an early center of American heavy industry? Guns and patents 2. How did reform movements affect the American public during the first half of the nineteenth century? More religion groups 3. During the Second Great Awakening, which were more emotional, the revivals in the East or the revivals in the West? In which region did the revivals center in the schools and churches? East and Northeast

Ncert Physics Book

Presents NCERT Text Books NCERT Text Books 11th Class Physics About Us Prep4Civils, website is a part of Sukratu Innovations, a offset printing up by IITians. The main theme of the comp every(prenominal) is to develop impudently web services which sterilize out help people. P rep4Civils is an online social networking platform mean for the welfargon of people who ar preparing for Civil services examinations. The whole website was build on open- reference point platform WordPress. Contact Details Website http//www. prep4civils. com/ Email emailprotected comDisclaimer and Terms of uptake By following Creative Common License, for the welf atomic number 18 of large student body we are merging each the PDF files provided by NCERT website and redistributing the files by giving becoming credit to NCERT website and the redistribution is based on the norms of Creative Common License. We are non commercially distributing the files. People who are downloading these files should non be engaged in any sort of sales or commercial distribution of these files. They can redistribute these copies freely by giving proper credit to the original author, NCERT (http//www. ncert. nic. in/NCERTS/ text/textbook. tm) and Prep4Civils (http//www. prep4civils. com/) by providing proper hyperlinks of the websites. Any sort of cliches can be addressed at emailprotected com and proper action entrust be taken. CONTENTS FOREWORD enclose A NOTE FOR THE TEACHER CHAPTER iii v x 1 PHYSICAL WORLD 1. 1 1. 2 1. 3 1. 4 1. 5 What is physiological science ? Scope and excitement of physics Physics, engine room and society Fundamental plucks in nature Nature of physical laws CHAPTER 1 2 5 6 10 2 UNITS AND MEASUREMENTS 2. 1 2. 2 2. 3 2. 4 2. 5 2. 6 2. 7 2. 8 2. 9 2. 10 establishment The international system of units cadence of length bar of massMeasurement of time Accuracy, precision of instruments and errors in measurement Significant figures Dimensions of physical quantities Dimensio nal formulae and dimensional equations Dimensional analysis and its applications CHAPTER 16 16 18 21 22 22 27 31 31 32 3 MOTION IN A STRAIGHT LINE 3. 1 3. 2 3. 3 3. 4 3. 5 3. 6 3. 7 penetration Position, path length and displacement Average speedinging and average speed Instantaneous velocity and speed speedup Kinematic equations for uniformly accelerated gesture congeneric velocity CHAPTER 39 39 42 43 45 47 51 4 MOTION IN A PLANE 4. 1 4. 2 4. 3 4. 4 4. 5 IntroductionScalars and vectors Multiplication of vectors by real numbers Addition and tax write-off of vectors graphical method Resolution of vectors 65 65 67 67 69 CK xii 4. 6 4. 7 4. 8 4. 9 4. 10 4. 11 Vector addition analytical method transaction in a plane Motion in a plane with constant acceleration Relative velocity in two dimensions Projectile motion Uniform circular motion CHAPTER 71 72 75 76 77 79 5 LAWS OF MOTION 5. 1 5. 2 5. 3 5. 4 5. 5 5. 6 5. 7 5. 8 5. 9 5. 10 5. 11 Introduction Aristotles hallucination The law of inertia atomic number 7s first law of motion northwards second law of motion Newtons terce law of motion Conservation of momentumEquilibrium of a particle Common agitates in mechanics Circular motion Solving problems in mechanics CHAPTER 89 90 90 91 93 96 98 99 100 104 105 6 WORK, ENERGY AND POWER 6. 1 6. 2 6. 3 6. 4 6. 5 6. 6 6. 7 6. 8 6. 9 6. 10 6. 11 6. 12 Introduction Notions of work and kinetic null The work- susceptibility theorem Work Kinetic strength Work d single by a variable staff office back The work-energy theorem for a variable strong point The concept of potential energy The conservation of mechanical energy The potential energy of a rally Various forms of energy the law of conservation of energy Power Collisions CHAPTER 114 116 116 117 118 119 120 121 123 126 28 129 7 SYSTEM OF PARTICLES AND rotational MOTION 7. 1 7. 2 7. 3 7. 4 7. 5 7. 6 7. 7 7. 8 7. 9 7. 10 Introduction Centre of mass Motion of centre of mass Linear momentum of a system of particl es Vector product of two vectors Angular velocity and its sexual congress with linear velocity tortuousness and angular momentum Equilibrium of a rigid body Moment of inertia Theorems of perpendicular and parallel axes 141 144 148 149 150 152 154 158 163 164 CK xiii 7. 11 7. 12 7. 13 7. 14 Kinematics of rotational motion about a fixed axis Dynamics of rotational motion about a fixed axis Angular momentum in case of rotations about a fixed axisRolling motion CHAPTER 167 169 171 173 8 GRAVITATION 8. 1 8. 2 8. 3 8. 4 8. 5 8. 6 8. 7 8. 8 8. 9 8. 10 8. 11 8. 12 Introduction Keplers laws Universal law of gravitation The gravitational constant Acceleration collectable to gravity of the earth Acceleration collectable to gravity below and above the surface of earth Gravitational potential energy Escape speed Earth satellite Energy of an orbiting satellite Geostationary and polar satellites Weightlessness 183 184 185 189 189 190 191 193 194 195 196 197 APPENDICES 203 ANSWERS 219 CK CK CO NTENTS FOREWORD PREFACE A NOTE FOR THE TEACHERS CHAPTER iii heptad x 9 MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF SOLIDS 9. 9. 2 9. 3 9. 4 9. 5 9. 6 9. 7 Introduction Elastic behaviour of solids Stress and strain Hookes law Stress-strain curve Elastic moduli Applications of elastic behaviour of materials CHAPTER 231 232 232 234 234 235 240 10 MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF FLUIDS 10. 1 10. 2 10. 3 10. 4 10. 5 10. 6 10. 7 Introduction Pressure Streamline flow Bernoullis principle Viscosity Reynolds number Surface tension CHAPTER 246 246 253 254 258 260 261 11 THERMAL PROPERTIES OF MATTER 11. 1 11. 2 11. 3 11. 4 11. 5 11. 6 11. 7 11. 8 11. 9 11. 10 Introduction Temperature and lovingness Measurement of temperature Ideal- flatulency equation and absolute temperatureThermal expansion Specific raise up mental ability Calorimetry Change of state Heat transfer Newtons law of modify CHAPTER 274 274 275 275 276 280 281 282 286 290 12 THERMODYNAMICS 12. 1 12. 2 Introduction Thermal proportionality 298 299 CK CK xii 12. 3 12. 4 12. 5 12. 6 12. 7 12. 8 12. 9 12. 10 12. 11 12. 12 12. 13 Zeroth law of thermodynamics Heat, familiar energy and work First law of thermodynamics Specific heat capacity Thermodynamic state variables and equation of state Thermodynamic processes Heat engines Refrigerators and heat pumps guerrilla law of thermodynamics Reversible and irreversible processes Carnot engine CHAPTER 300 300 302 03 304 305 308 308 309 310 311 13 KINETIC THEORY 13. 1 13. 2 13. 3 13. 4 13. 5 13. 6 13. 7 Introduction Molecular nature of matter Behaviour of gases Kinetic system of an imaginationl gas Law of equipartition of energy Specific heat capacity Mean free path CHAPTER 318 318 320 323 327 328 330 14 OSCILLATIONS 14. 1 14. 2 14. 3 14. 4 14. 5 14. 6 14. 7 14. 8 14. 9 14. 10 Introduction Periodic and oscilatory motions Simple harmonized motion Simple consonant motion and uniform circular motion Velocity and acceleration in simple harmonic motion Force law for simple harmonic motion En ergy in simple harmonic motion Some systems executing SHMDamped simple harmonic motion Forced oscillations and resonance CHAPTER 336 337 339 341 343 345 346 347 351 353 15 WAVES 15. 1 15. 2 15. 3 15. 4 15. 5 15. 6 Introduction Transverse and longitudinal waves Displacement relation in a processionive wave The speed of a travelling wave The principle of superposition of waves Reflection of waves 363 365 367 369 373 374 CK CK xiii 15. 7 15. 8 defeat Doppler forcefulness 379 381 ANSWERS 391 BIBLIOGRAPHY 401 INDEX 403 CK CHAPTER ONE PHYSICAL WORLD 1. 1 WHAT IS PHYSICS ? 1. 1 What is physics ? 1. 2 Scope and excitement of physics 1. 3 Physics, technology and society 1. 4 Fundamental forces in nature 1. Nature of physical laws Summary Exercises Humans founder always been curious about the world some them. The night sky with its bright celestial objects has fascinated humans since time immemorial. The regular repetitions of the day and night, the annual cycle of seasons, the eclipses, the tides, the volcanoes, the rainbow have always been a source of wonder. The world has an astonishing variety of materials and a bewildering diversity of life and behaviour. The inquiring and imaginative human mind has responded to the wonder and awe of nature in contrasting ways. One kind of response from the earliest times has been to observe the hysical environment carefully, look for any meaningful patterns and relations in natural phenomena, and build and accustom hot-fashioned tools to interact with nature. This human endeavour led, in course of time, to modern scholarship and technology. The word Science originates from the Latin verb Scientia meaning to know. The Sanskrit word Vijnan and the Arabic word Ilm c onvey similar meaning, namely knowledge. Science, in a broad sense, is as old as human species. The early civilisations of Egypt, India, China, Greece, Mesopotamia and many new(prenominal)s do vital plowshares to its progress. From the sixteenth century onwar ds, great strides were made n science in Europe. By the middle of the twentieth century, science had become a unfeignedly international enterprise, with many cultures and countries contributing to its rapid growth. What is Science and what is the so-called Scientific Method ? Science is a systematic attempt to under(a)stand natural phenomena in as much detail and depth as possible, and use the knowledge so gained to predict, modify and control phenomena. Science is exploring, analyseing and predicting from what we see around us. The curiosity to settle about the world, unravelling the secrets of nature is the first step towards the discovery of science.The scientific method involves several interconnected steps Systematic observations, controlled experiments, qualitative and 2 quantitative reasoning, numerical archetypeling, prediction and verification or falsification of theories. Speculation and conjecture also have a place in science but ultimately, a scientific surmise, to be acceptable, must be verified by relevant observations or experiments. in that location is much philosophical debate about the nature and method of science that we need not discuss here. The interplay of theory and observation (or experiment) is base to the progress of science. Science is ever dynamic.There is no final theory in science and no unquestioned authority among scientists. As observations improve in detail and precision or experiments yield new results, theories must account for them, if necessary, by introducing modifications. Sometimes the modifications whitethorn not be drastic and may lie within the framework of quick theory. For example, when Johannes Kepler (1571-1630) examined the extensive data on planetary motion collected by Tycho Brahe (1546-1601), the planetary circular orbits in heliocentric theory (sun at the centre of the solar system) imagined by Nicolas Copernicus (14731543) had to be replaced by elliptical rbits to fit the data meliorate. Occasi onally, however, the existing theory is simply unable to explain new observations. This causes a major upheaval in science. In the beginning of the twentieth century, it was realised that Newtonian mechanics, boulder clay then a very successful theory, could not explain some of the most basic features of corpuscleic phenomena. Similarly, the then accepted wave picture of clean failed to explain the photo galvanizing effect properly. This led to the development of a radically new theory (Quantum Mechanics) to deal with atomic and molecular(a) phenomena. Just as a new experiment may suggest an lternative theoretical model, a theoretical advance may suggest what to look for in some experiments. The result of experiment of scattering of alpha particles by gold foil, in 1911 by Ernest Rutherford (18711937) established the atomic model of the atom, which then became the basis of the quantum theory of hydrogen atom inclined in 1913 by Niels Bohr (18851962). On the other hand, the conc ept of antiparticle was first introduced theoretically by Paul Dirac (19021984) in 1930 and confirm two categorys later by the experimental discovery of positron (antielectron) by Carl Anderson. P HYSICS Physics is a basic discipline in the category f Natural Sciences, which also includes other disciplines resembling Chemistry and Biology. The word Physics comes from a Greek word meaning nature. Its Sanskrit equivalent is Bhautiki that is used to refer to the study of the physical world. A diminutive definition of this discipline is neither possible nor necessary. We can broadly describe physics as a study of the basic laws of nature and their disclosure in different natural phenomena. The scope of physics is described briefly in the next section. Here we remark on two principal thrusts in physics unification and reduction. In Physics, we attempt to explain respective(a) hysical phenomena in terms of a few concepts and laws. The effort is to see the physical world as manifesta tion of some universal laws in different soils and conditions. For example, the same(p) law of gravitation (given by Newton) describes the fall of an apple to the ground, the motion of the moon around the earth and the motion of planets around the sun. Similarly, the basic laws of electromagnetism (Maxwells equations) govern all electric car and magnetic phenomena. The attempts to unify fundamental forces of nature (section 1. 4) reflect this same quest for unification. A related effort is to derive the properties of a igger, more complex, system from the properties and interactions of its constituent simpler parts. This approach is called reductionism and is at the heart of physics. For example, the subject of thermodynamics, developed in the nineteenth century, deals with mess systems in terms of macroscopic quantities such as temperature, internal energy, entropy, etc. Subsequently, the subjects of kinetic theory and statistical mechanics interpreted these quantities in terms of the properties of the molecular constituents of the bulk system. In particular, the temperature was seen to be related to the average kinetic energy of molecules of the system. . 2 SCOPE AND EXCITEMENT OF PHYSICS We can get some idea of the scope of physics by looking at its various sub-disciplines. Basically, in that location are two realitys of interest macroscopic and microscopic. The macroscopic domain includes phenomena at the laboratory, world(a) and astronomical scales. The microscopic domain includes atomic, molecular and thermonuclear P HYSICAL WORLD phenomena*. Classical Physics deals mainly with macroscopic phenomena and includes subjects like Mechanics, Electrodynamics, Optics a nd T hermodynamics . Mechanics founded on Newtons laws of motion and the law of gravitation is concerned with the motion (or quilibrium) of particles, rigid and tryable bodies, and general systems of particles. The actuation of a rocket by a jet of ejecting gases, propagation of water w aves or sound waves in air, the chemical equilibrium of a bent rod under a load, etc. , are problems of mechanics. Electrodynamics deals with electric and magnetic phenomena associated with supercharged and magnetic bodies. Its basic laws were given by Coulomb, Oersted, Fig. 1. 1 chemical process, etc. , are problems of interest in thermodynamics. The microscopic domain of physics deals with the constitution and structure of matter at the minute scales of atoms and nuclei (and even ower scales of length) and their interaction with different probes such as electrons, photons and other elementary particles. Classical physics is inadequate to handle this domain and Quantum Theory is currently accepted as the proper framework for explaining microscopic phenomena. Overall, the edifice of physics is beautiful and imposing and you testament appreciate it more as you pursue the subject. Theory and experiment go hand in hand in physics and help each others progress. The alpha scattering e xperiments of Rutherford gave the nuclear model of the atom. Ampere and Faraday, and encapsulated by Maxwell in his famous set of equations.The motion of a current-carrying conductor in a magnetic field, the response of a circuit to an ac voltage (signal), the working of an antenna, the propagation of radio waves in the ionosphere, etc. , are problems of electrodynamics. Optics deals with the phenomena involving light. The working of telescopes and microscopes, colour exhibited by thin films, etc. , are topics in optics. Thermodynamics, in contrast to mechanics, does not deal with the motion of bodies as a whole. Rather, it deals with systems in macroscopic equilibrium and is concerned with changes in internal energy, temperature, entropy, etc. , of the ystem through external work and transfer of heat. The efficiency of heat engines and refrigerators, the direction of a physical or * 3 You can now see that the scope of physics is truly vast. It covers a tremendous chain of mountai ns of magnitude of physical quantities like length, mass, time, energy, etc. At one end, it studies phenomena at the very small scale of length -14 (10 m or even less) involving electrons, protons, etc. at the other end, it deals with astronomical phenomena at the scale of galaxies or even the entire universe whose extent is of the order of 26 10 m. The two length scales differ by a factor of 40 10 or even more.The range of time scales can be obtained by dividing the length scales by the 22 speed of light 10 s to 1018 s. The range of masses goes from, say, 1030 kg (mass of an 55 electron) to 10 kg (mass of known observable universe). Terrestrial phenomena lie somewhere in the middle of this range. Recently, the domain intermediate mingled with the macroscopic and the microscopic (the so-called mesoscopic physics), dealing with a few tens or hundreds of atoms, has emerged as an excite field of research. 4 Physics is exciting in many ways. To some people the excitement comes from t he elegance and universality of its basic theories, from the fact that few basic concepts and laws can explain phenomena covering a large range of magnitude of physical quantities. To some others, the challenge in carrying out imaginative new experiments to unlock the secrets of nature, to verify or refute theories, is thrilling. apply physics is equally demanding. Application and exploitation of physical laws to make useful devices is the most interesting and exciting part and requires great ingenuity and persistence of effort. What lies female genitals the phenomenal progress of physics in the last few centuries? Great progress usually accompanies changes in our basic perceptions.First, it was realised that for scientific progress, just qualitative thinking, though no doubt important, is not enough. Quantitative measurement is central to the growth of science, especially physics, because the laws of nature happen to be expressible in hairsplitting mathematical equations. The s econd most important insight was that the basic laws of physics are universal the same laws apply in widely different contexts. Lastly, the strategy of approximation turned out to be very successful. Most observed phenomena in daily life are rather complicated manifestations of the basic laws. Scientists recognise the importance f extracting the infixed features of a phenomenon from its less significant aspects. It is not practical to take into account all the complexities of a phenomenon in one go. A good strategy is to focus first on the essential features, discover the basic principles and then introduce turn downions to build a more lissome theory of the phenomenon. For example, a stone and a feather dropped from the same height do not reach the ground at the same time. The reason is that the essential aspect of the phenomenon, namely free fall under gravity, is complicated by the presence of air resistance. To get the law of free all under gravity, it is better to create a situation wherein the air resistance is negligible. We can, for example, let the stone and the feather fall through a long evacuated tube. In that case, the two objects exit fall almost at the same rate, giving the basic law that acceleration due to gravity is independent of the mass of the object. With the basic law and then found, we can go back to the feather, introduce corrections due to air resistance, modify the existing theory and try to build a more existent P HYSICS Hypothesis, axioms and models One should not think that everything can be proved with physics and mathematics.All physics, and also mathematics, is based on as nubptions, each of which is variously called a possible action or axiom or postulate, etc. For example, the universal law of gravitation proposed by Newton is an assumption or hypothesis, which he proposed out of his ingenuity. Before him, there were several observations, experiments and data, on the motion of planets around the sun, motion of the m oon around the earth, pendulums, bodies falling towards the earth etc. Each of these required a separate explanation, which was more or less qualitative. What the universal law of gravitation says is that, if we assume that any two odies in the universe attract each other with a force proportional to the product of their masses and inversely proportional to the square of the distance amidst them, then we can explain all these observations in one stroke. It not only explains these phenomena, it also allows us to predict the results of future experiments. A hypothesis is a supposition without assuming that it is true. It would not be fair to ask anybody to prove the universal law of gravitation, because it cannot be proved. It can be verified and substantiated by experiments and observations. An axiom is a self-evident truth while a model s a theory proposed to explain observed phenomena. But you need not worry at this stage about the nuances in using these words. For example, next y ear you will learn about Bohrs model of hydrogen atom, in which Bohr assumed that an electron in the hydrogen atom follows certain rules (postutates). Why did he do that? There was a large amount of spectroscopic data before him which no other theory could explain. So Bohr said that if we assume that an atom behaves in such a manner, we can explain all these things at once. Einsteins special theory of relativity is also based on two postulates, the constancy of the speed f electromagnetic beam and the validity of physical laws in all inertial frame of reference. It would not be judicious to ask somebody to prove that the speed of light in vacuum is constant, independent of the source or observer. In mathematics too, we need axioms and hypotheses at every stage. Euclids statement that parallel lines never meet, is a hypothesis. This means that if we assume this statement, we can explain several properties of straight lines and two or troika dimensional figures made out of them. Bu t if you dont assume it, you are free to use a different axiom and get a new geometry, as has indeed happened in he past few centuries and decades. P HYSICAL WORLD 5 theory of objects falling to the earth under gravity. 1. 3 PHYSICS, applied science AND SOCIETY The connection between physics, technology and society can be seen in many examples. The discipline of thermodynamics arose from the need to understand and improve the working of heat engines. The steam engine, as we know, is inseparable from the Industrial R growing in England in the eighteenth century, which had great impact on the course of human civilisation. Sometimes technology gives rise to new physics at other times physics generates new technology.An example of the latter is the wireless communication technology that followed the discovery of the basic laws of electricity and magnetism in the nineteenth century. The applications of physics are not always easy to foresee. As late as 1933, the great physicist Ernest R utherford had dismissed the initiative of tapping energy from atoms. But only a few years later, in 1938, Hahn and Meitner discovered the phenomenon of neutron-induced fission of uranium, which would serve as the basis of nuclear power reactors and nuclear weapons. Yet another important example of physics giving rise to technology is the silicon chip that triggered the computer revolution in the last three decades of the twentieth century. A most significant area to which physics has and will contribute is the development of alternative energy resources. The fossil fuels of the planet are fall fast and there is an press outnt need to discover new and affordable sources of energy. Considerable progress has al skimy been made in this direction (for example, in trans administration of solar energy, geothermal energy, etc. , into electricity), but much more is still to be accomplished. Table1. 1 lists some of the great physicists, their major contribution and the country of rigin. Y ou will appreciate from this table the multi-cultural, international character of the scientific endeavour. Table 1. 2 lists some important technologies and the principles of physics they are based on. Obviously, these tables are not exhaustive. We urge you to try to add many names and items to these tables with the help of your teachers, good books and websites on science. You will find that this exercise is very educative and also great fun. And, assuredly, it will never end. The progress of science is unstoppable Physics is the study of nature and natural phenomena. Physicists try to discover the rules hat are operating in nature, on the basis of observations, experimentation and analysis. Physics deals with certain basic rules/laws governing the natural world. What is the nature Table 1. 1 Some physicists from different countries of the world and their major contributions adduce Major contribution/discovery Country of Origin Archimedes Principle of buoyancy Principle of the lev er Greece Galileo Galilei Law of inertia Italy Christiaan Huygens jolt theory of light Holland Isaac Newton Universal law of gravitation Laws of motion Reflecting telescope U. K. Michael Faraday Laws of electromagnetic induction U. K. James Clerk Maxwellelectromagnetic theory Light-an electromagnetic wave U. K. Heinrich Rudolf Hertz Generation of electromagnetic waves Germany J. C. Bose Ultra short radio waves India W. K. Roentgen X-rays Germany J. J. Thomson Electron U. K. Marie Sklodowska Curie Discovery of radium and polonium Studies on Poland natural radioactivity Albert Einstein Explanation of photoelectrical effect Theory of relativity Germany 6 P HYSICS Name Major contribution/discovery Country of Origin Victor Francis Hess Cosmic radiation Austria R. A. Millikan Measurement of electronic charge U. S. A. Ernest Rutherford Nuclear model of atom New Zealand Niels BohrQuantum model of hydrogen atom Denmark C. V. Raman Inelastic scattering of light by molecules India Louis Victo r de Borglie Wave nature of matter France M. N. Saha Thermal ionisation India S. N. Bose Quantum statistics India Wolfgang Pauli Exclusion principle Austria Enrico Fermi Controlled nuclear fission Italy Werner Heisenberg Quantum mechanics Uncertainty principle Germany Paul Dirac Relativistic theory of electron Quantum statistics U. K. Edwin Hubble Expanding universe U. S. A. Ernest Orlando Lawrence Cyclotron U. S. A. James Chadwick Neutron U. K. Hideki Yukawa Theory of nuclear forces Japan Homi Jehangir BhabhaCascade process of cosmic radiation India Lev Davidovich Landau Theory of condensed matter Liquid helium Russia S. Chandrasekhar Chandrasekhar limit, structure and evolution of stars India John Bardeen Transistors Theory of super conductivity U. S. A. C. H. Townes Maser Laser U. S. A. Abdus Salam Unification of weak and electromagnetic interactions Pakistan of physical laws? We shall now discuss the nature of fundamental forces and the laws that govern the diverse phenomena of the physical world. 1. 4 FUNDAMENTAL FORCES IN NATURE* We all have an intuitive notion of force. In our experience, force is needed to push, carry or hrow objects, deform or break them. We also experience the impact of forces on us, like when a moving object hits us or we are in a merry-goround. Going from this intuitive notion to the proper scientific concept of force is not a trivial matter. Early thinkers like Aristotle had wrong * ideas about it. The correct notion of force was arrived at by Isaac Newton in his famous laws of motion. He also gave an explicit form for the force for gravitational attraction between two bodies. We shall learn these matters in subsequent chapters. In the macroscopic world, besides the gravitational force, we encounter several kinds f forces muscular force, contact forces between bodies, clangoring (which is also a contact force parallel to the surfaces in contact), the forces exerted by compressed or elongated springs and taut strings and ropes (te nsion), the force of buoyancy and sticking force when solids are in Sections 1. 4 and 1. 5 contain several ideas that you may not grasp fully in your first reading. However, we advise you to read them carefully to develop a feel for some basic aspects of physics. These are some of the areas which continue to occupy the physicists today. P HYSICAL WORLD 7 Table 1. 2 Link between technology and physics TechnologyScientific principle(s) Steam engine Laws of thermodynamics Nuclear reactor Controlled nuclear fission Radio and Television Generation, propagation and detection of electromagnetic waves Computers Digital logic Lasers Light amplification by stimulated emission of radiation Production of ultra high magnetic fields Superconductivity Rocket propulsion Newtons laws of motion Electric generator Faradays laws of electromagnetic induction Hydroelectric power Conversion of gravitational potential energy into electrical energy Aeroplane Bernoullis principle in fluid dynamics Particle accelerators Motion of charged particles in electromagnetic ields Sonar Reflection of ultrasonic waves Optical fibres Total internal reflection of light Non-reflecting coatings Thin film optical interference Electron microscope Wave nature of electrons Photocell Photoelectric effect Fusion test reactor (Tokamak) Magnetic confinement of plasma Giant Metrewave Radio Telescope (GMRT) Detection of cosmic radio waves Bose-Einstein condensate Trapping and cooling of atoms by laser beams and magnetic fields. contact with fluids, the force due to pressure of a fluid, the force due to surface tension of a liquid, and so on. There are also forces involving charged nd magnetic bodies. In the microscopic domain again, we have electric and magnetic forces, nuclear forces involving protons and neutrons, interatomic and intermolecular forces, etc. We shall get familiar with some of these forces in later parts of this course. A great insight of the twentieth century physics is that these different forces occurring in different contexts in reality arise from only a small number of fundamental forces in nature. For example, the elastic spring force arises due to the net attraction/repulsion between the neighbouring atoms of the spring when the spring is elongated/compressed. This net ttraction/repulsion can be traced to the (unbalanced) sum of electric forces between the charged constituents of the atoms. In principle, this means that the laws for derived forces (such as spring force, crash) are not independent of the laws of fundamental forces in nature. The origin of these derived forces is, however, very complex. At the present stage of our understanding, we know of four fundamental forces in nature, which are described in brief here 8 P HYSICS Albert Einstein (1879-1955) Albert Einstein, born in Ulm, Germany in 1879, is universally regarded as one of the greatest physicists of all time.His astonishing scientific career began with the publication of three path-breaking p apers in 1905. In the first paper, he introduced the notion of light quanta (now called photons) and used it to explain the features of photoelectric effect that the classical wave theory of radiation could not account for. In the second paper, he developed a theory of Brownian motion that was confirmed experimentally a few years later and provided a convincing evidence of the atomic picture of matter. The third paper gave birth to the special theory of relativity that made Einstein a legend in his own life time.In the next decade, he explored the consequences of his new theory which included, among other things, the mass-energy equivalence enshrined in his famous equation E = mc2. He also created the general version of relativity (The General Theory of Relativity), which is the modern theory of gravitation. Some of Einsteins most significant later contributions are the notion of stimulated emission introduced in an alternative derivation of Plancks blackbody radiation law, static m odel of the universe which started modern cosmology, quantum statistics of a gas of massive bosons, and a critical analysis of the foundations of quantum mechanics.The year 2005 was declared as International Year of Physics, in credit of Einsteins monumental contribution to physics, in year 1905, describing revolutionary scientific ideas that have since influenced all of modern physics. 1. 4. 1 Gravitational Force The gravitational force is the force of mutual attraction between any two objects by virtue of their masses. It is a universal force. Every object experiences this force due to every other object in the universe. All objects on the earth, for example, experience the force of gravity due to the earth. In particular, gravity governs the motion of the moon and drippy satellites around he earth, motion of the earth and planets around the sun, and, of course, the motion of bodies falling to the earth. It plays a key role in the large-scale phenomena of the universe, such as fo rmation and evolution of stars, galaxies and galactic clusters. 1. 4. 2 Electromagnetic Force Electromagnetic force is the force between charged particles. In the simpler case when charges are at rest, the force is given by Coulombs law attractive for unlike charges and repulsive for like charges. Charges in motion produce magnetic effects and a magnetic field gives rise to a force on a moving charge. Electric nd magnetic effects are, in general, inseparable and then the name electromagnetic force. Like the gravitational force, electromagnetic force acts over large distances and does not need any intervening medium. It is enormously strong compared to gravity. The electric force between two protons, for example, 36 is 10 times the gravitational force between them, for any fixed distance. Matter, as we know, consists of elementary charged constituents like electrons and protons. Since the electromagnetic force is so much stronger than the gravitational force, it dominates all phen omena at atomic and molecular scales. (The other two forces, as we hall see, operate only at nuclear scales. ) Thus it is mainly the electromagnetic force that governs the structure of atoms and molecules, the dynamics of chemical reactions and the mechanical, thermal and other properties of materials. It underlies the macroscopic forces like tension, friction, normal force, spring force, etc. Gravity is always attractive, while electromagnetic force can be attractive or repulsive. other way of putting it is that mass comes only in one variety (there is no negatively charged mass), but charge comes in two varieties positive and negative charge. This is what makes all the difference.Matter is mostly electrically neutral (net charge is zero). Thus, electric force is largely zero and gravitational force dominates terrestrial phenomena. Electric force manifests itself in atmosphere where the atoms are ionised and that leads to lightning. P HYSICAL WORLD 9 Satyendranath Bose (1894-197 4) Satyendranath Bose, born in Calcutta in 1894, is among the great Indian physicists who made a fundamental contribution to the advance of science in the twentieth century. An outstanding student throughout, Bose started his career in 1916 as a lecturer in physics in Calcutta University five-spot years later he joined Dacca University.Here in 1924, in a brilliant flash of insight, Bose gave a new derivation of Plancks law, treating radiation as a gas of photons and employing new statistical methods of counting of photon states. He wrote a short paper on the subject and sent it to Einstein who forthwith recognised its great significance, translated it in German and forwarded it for publication. Einstein then applied the same method to a gas of molecules. The key new conceptual share in Boses work was that the particles were regarded as indistinguishable, a radical departure from the assumption that underlies the classical MaxwellBoltzmann statistics.It was soon realised that the new Bose-Einstein statistics was applicable to particles with integers spins, and a new quantum statistics (Fermi-Dirac statistics) was needed for particles with half integers spins satisfying Paulis exclusion principle. Particles with integers spins are now known as bosons in honour of Bose. An important consequence of Bose-Einstein statistics is that a gas of molecules below a certain temperature will undergo a phase transition to a state where a large fraction of atoms populate the same lowest energy state.Some seventy years were to pass before the pioneering ideas of Bose, developed further by Einstein, were dramatically confirmed in the observation of a new state of matter in a dilute gas of ultra cold alkali atoms the Bose-Eintein condensate. If we reflect a little, the enormous strength of the electromagnetic force compared to gravity is evident in our daily life. When we hold a book in our hand, we are balancing the gravitational force on the book due to the huge mass of th e earth by the normal force provided by our hand. The latter is nothing but the net electromagnetic force between the charged constituents of our hand and he book, at the surface in contact. If electromagnetic force were not intrinsically so much stronger than gravity, the hand of the strongest man would crumble under the weight of a feather Indeed, to be consistent, in that circumstance, we ourselves would crumble under our own weight 1. 4. 3 Strong Nuclear Force The strong nuclear force binds protons and neutrons in a nucleus. It is evident that without some attractive force, a nucleus will be unstable due to the electric repulsion between its protons. This attractive force cannot be gravitational since force of gravity is negligible compared to the electric force.A new basic force must, therefore, be invoked. The strong nuclear force is the strongest of all fundamental forces, about 100 times the electromagnetic force in strength. It is charge-independent and acts equally betwe en a proton and a proton, a neutron and a neutron, and a proton and a neutron. Its range is, however, extremely small, 15 of about nuclear dimensions (10 m). It is responsible for the stability of nuclei. The electron, it must be noted, does not experience this force. Recent developments have, however, indicated that protons and neutrons are built out of still more elementary constituents called quarks. . 4. 4 Weak Nuclear Force The weak nuclear force appears only in certain nuclear processes such as the ? -decay of a nucleus. In ? -decay, the nucleus emits an electron and an uncharged particle called neutrino. The weak nuclear force is not as weak as the gravitational force, but much weaker than the strong nuclear and electromagnetic forces. The range of weak nuclear force is exceedingly small, of the order of 10-16 m. 1. 4. 5 Towards Unification of Forces We remarked in section 1. 1 that unification is a basic quest in physics. Great advances in physics often amount to unification of different 10 P HYSICS Table 1. Fundamental forces of nature Name Relative strength Range Operates among Gravitational force 10 39 Infinite All objects in the universe Weak nuclear force 1013 Very short, Sub-nuclear size ( ? 16 m) 10 Some elementary particles, particularly electron and neutrino Electromagnetic force 102 Infinite Charged particles Strong nuclear force 1 Short, nuclear size ( ? 15 m) 10 Nucleons, heavier elementary particles theories and domains. Newton matching terrestrial and celestial domains under a common law of gravitation. The experimental discoveries of Oersted and Faraday showed that electric and magnetic phenomena are in general nseparable. Maxwell unified electromagnetism and optics with the discovery that light is an electromagnetic wave. Einstein attempted to unify gravity and electromagnetism but could not succeed in this venture. But this did not deter physicists from zealously pursuing the goal of unification of forces. Recent decades have seen muc h progress on this front. The electromagnetic and the weak nuclear force have now been unified and are seen as aspects of a single electro-weak force. What this unification actually means cannot be explained here. Attempts have been (and are being) made to unify the electro-weak and the trong force and even to unify the gravitational force with the rest of the fundamental forces. Many of these ideas are still speculative and inconclusive. Table 1. 4 summarises some of the milestones in the progress towards unification of forces in nature. 1. 5 NATURE OF PHYSICAL LAWS Physicists explore the universe. Their investigations, based on scientific processes, range from particles that are smaller than atoms in size to stars that are very far away. In addition to finding the facts by observation and experimentation, physicists attempt to discover the laws that summarise (often as mathematical quations) these facts. In any physical phenomenon governed by different forces, several quantities m ay change with time. A remarkable fact is that some special physical quantities, however, remain constant in time. They are the conserved quantities of nature. Understanding these conservation principles is very important to describe the observed phenomena quantitatively. For motion under an external conservative force, the total mechanical energy i. e. the sum of kinetic and potential energy of a body is a constant. The familiar example is the free fall of an object under gravity. Both the kinetic energy

Environmental program Essay

Superfund is an environmental program formed to address abandoned hazardous waste sites. It is also established by the amended countywide Environmental Response, Compensation and Liability Act of 1980. The law was enacted in the height of the discovery of dumps of toxic wastes in the 1970. The law permits the Environmental Protection manner (EPA) to clean up such hazardous locations and to require responsible companies/persons to do clean up or compensate the government for EPA-initiated cleanups. The Superfund cleanup procedure is intricate.It starts on the assessment of the sites and placing them on the bailiwick Priorities List, then conduct cleanups on them. Located at 4109 West Linebaugh Avenue in Tampa, Hillsborough County, Florida, the Southern Solvents, Inc. served as a rescue and trade point for tetrachloroethylene. The chemical, which is also known as perchloroethylene or PCE was stored in four aboveground storage tanks in the facility from 1977 to 1985. The facility di stributed the chemicals for dry cleaners located within the area. From 1985 to 1989 the facility was leased to P.J. s Spa and recently leased to a commercial painting company. The whole property of Southern Solvents, Inc. is near 100 feet wide and 185 feet deep. When the company is still in operations, the aboveground tanks were individually filled from tanker tanks that brought the chemicals to the facility. One former tank had a capacity of 3,000 gallons maculation the size of the other three is still unknown. It is believed that leaks and spills of tetrachloroethylene happened while the tanks are being filled and emptied.The tetrachloroethylene that spilled and leaked was not contained and eventually goes down into the nearby arenaceous soil. In 1988, when the facilitys drinking water well and several private drinking wells nearby, it was positive contamination of tetrachloroethylene and related compounds of trichloroethylene and 1,2-dichloroethan. The Florida Department of H ealth and Rehabilitative Services advise instantaneously the residents within the area to stop using water from these wells and supplied bottled water to owners and tenants in the area.The Florida Cites water system Department and the Northwest Hillsborough County Utilities have four wells that draw water from an aquifer within 4 miles of Southern Solvents facility. They provide water supply to more than 46,000 volume in St. Petersburg, Hillsborough County, and nearby communities. As early as 1994, EPA conducted preliminary assessment of the site and its threat to the community. On July 27, 2000, Southern Solvents site was placed on the National Priorities List (NPL).Various studies then undergoes since the signing of the Superfund Contract that commits the State for 10 percent of the cost for the clean up. Until now, there are only initial stairs of chemical oxidation studies and soil vapor extractions are done into the site.ReferenceEnvironmental Protection Agency, Florida. (2009 , March 20). Southern Solvents. Retrieved March 24, 2009, from http//www. dep. state. fl. us/waste/quick_topics/publications/ wc/sites/ compendium/141. pdf Environmental Protection Agency, United States. (2009, January 30). Superfund. Retrieved March 24, 2009, from http//www. epa. gov/superfund/about. htm

Reflective Practice Essay

Professional development I feel is beneficial for both tutor and student. The process of glittering on your own practices and having the discipline to be constructive around the actions you take to evaluate your own performance will determine the impact it has in the classroom and the t severallying and learning go out. Overall this process has encouraged me to reflect on most of my practices which has helped me to understand my role as a teacher. This development has systematically reinforced the actual reason of why we as teachers perform the carriage we do. This has given me a boost in confidence because I now shed a reason behind meaning. I use my own judgment to determine how well a contingent teaching experience had benefitted my learners and whether things went good or bad. From this basic analysis I can adapt and enhance particular parts of a session to create and aim for a better learning experience.This gives me areas to focus on to help develop my skills as a teach er. I have previously focussed on inclusion and worked to move the whole class collectively by supporting them without their programme of learning. It is important to have the correct resources and utilise a range of techniques as this is vital in creating an interesting and challenging lesson for the individual. The Knowledge I have gained through developing varied areas is becoming very useful and beneficial to my teaching. The increased presence of IT in modern day culture has encouraged the education system to use and hook up with the trend and integrate more user friendly IT systems into its institutions as well as increase the use of IT in the classroom.I have attended IT develop sessions involving VLEs, Quizdom, SMART board, online portfolios and other online resources. I have learnt to integrate some of this into the classroom. Efficient use of these resources enhances the learning experience instead of overwhelming it. I found most of my learners often prefer traditiona l teaching techniques as they benefit more from my personal experiences and knowledge which can often prove difficult to convey through the means of IT. I try to reflect on approximately every aspect of my teaching and have often evaluated lessons that have been observed.This was a system session on the topic of Health and Safety in the workplacemainly focussing on Personal Protective Equipment. This was with a group of fairly youthfulness students so I thought I should make the lesson as exciting as possible. I used a range of resources, mainly different types of PPE which I used to demonstrate how to wear and use correctly in order for each item to be effective. I used the different students to demonstrate miscellaneous items of PPE which made the lesson fun. The students responded very well and were very keen to have a go at trying things on. I used a power-point presentation to allow for the visual learners. I used some graphic images of various accidents in the workplace f or the affective domain.I had to ensure that no one would feel ill-fitting with the pictures they were only used as a shock tactic to make the younger students realise that Health and Safety is very important in straight offs industry. We had discussed the nature of the accidents and the students became very relaxed and willing to discuss their personal experiences and admitted to entering onto an empty building site to muck about this made me re-evaluate the dangers that they were susceptible to whilst mucking about on the building site, even though the objective of the pictures was to grab the students attention. In conclusion I was initially shocked to find how open the students were but blithe to know that indirectly I had educated them of the potential dangers of entering onto a building site.The topic of this session was trussed rafter roofs. I thought this contentedness could easily be put into context and the students would find it very interesting because they could re late to it. We went from simple to complex for example we looked at the reasons why we have roofs to determination out how to make a roof component and then actually put it into practice. I thought this lesson went really well I had put a lot of effort and time into the preparation of the resources I used a range of resources to cater for all the learning styles I used DVD video, whiten board, A3 paper with drawing boards, and a miniature model of two different types of roofs.All these resources were extremely useful for me as a teaching aid and for the students as a learning aid. It helped to form closure for the students we discussed aspects of roofs then I was able to use the models as demonstrations. The timing of the lesson was fairly accurate and I kept each topic and activity in small sizeable chunks to make the lesson more excitingfor the students. If I was to do the same lesson again I would emend the order of implementing groups and the way I controlled the activities. I received good feedback from the observer and I was graded with a 1 which I was very pleased withThis was another theory lesson where I used a variety of learning aids to enhance the learning experience this included a variety of species of wood and also a microscope with a small selection of wood cell samples. All these resources worked very well and the students could relate to the textbook side easier than if without them. The most effective resource was the microscope the students almost seemed excited to discover what was through the lens. Most of the time the student were in groups working on tasks then group discussions throughout.I also used a power-point presentation to reinforce the learning. I received some very good feedback which included strengths and weaknesses I think it is very important to enable to work and improve on my teaching skills. If I were to do the same lesson again I would carefully select individual learners for each group because there was a some do minant learners which meant some of the quieter students didnt get the most out of the session because louder more confident students tended to answer more questions which suited the quieter ones, on reflection I should have asked more direct questions as opposed to open questions.I think reflective practice is very important because learning gained from one experience can be used and adapted to fit another.

Against Working Mothers

Fatima Saucedo Mr. Lewton English 101 6 December 2012 The Value of Stay-At-Home Moms Now days, numerous people tend to look down at stay-at- sign moms rather than working m other(a)s. This happens to many women, making it more difficult for them to choose between their children or work. For the first time in twenty-five years, the percentage of mothers returning to the work shove has fallen from fifty-nine percent in 1998 to fifty-five percent in 2000 (Adrienne Fox, Jan. 2002). This shows that women expect more of a lifestyle choice rather than an economic choice.For mothers, it is a hard decision to make, but staying at home with their children is a better choice. Children essential the affection and attention of their mothers. The reason I am against working mothers is because it is important to have a maternal figure during growth, as children behave better, and daycare is not the appropriate substitution for proper motherly care. Stay-at-home mothers also have the privilege o f enjoying their childrens firsts. Their first steps, their first words, and their first haircut.Experiencing these firsts while giving them plaudit and encouragement will induce children to feel secure and wanted. According to Dr. Laurence Steinberg, a professor of physiology at Temple University in Philadelphia, good parenting helps lower the chances for anxiety, depression, eating disorders, asocial behavior, alcohol and drug use. No mother would want their children growing up with a higher(prenominal) chance of these disorders or behaviors. Having a mother at home brings daughter and son to mother relationships closer, not only physically but also emotionally as well.Infants who receive enough attention from a sweet adult right from the start are more likely to succeed socially and emotionally (Betty Holcomb) It is risky for infants to be away from their moms for more than twenty hours per week. Psychologists outcry babies who are separated from their mothers may tend to a ct out in school, cause trouble in life, or even have poor relationships as adults (Betty Holcomb). A very important advantage a mother has is she can discipline her child more consistently when being at home.The childs values and ethics can be guided. Kids are going to behave better and act out less for attention especially if these values and morals are enforced since newborns. non only will they behave well in school, they will have good grades. This is because parents will be able to carry away their time more effectively to be able to focus on their childrens education. The childrens homework will be making sure it is completed, with a stay-at-home mom looking out for them.In some families, it is actually less expensive for one parent to stay at home than to pay for childcare. Not only the cost of childcare is saved, there is also the issue of feeding the family. If there is a stay-at-home mom, the need for quick take-out food is dramatically reduced. This is usually the ca se for working mothers, because they are either too tired or do not have enough time to cook a meal for her family. Also, mothers do not need to worry about how their child is doing in daycare.Two studies, one by the National Institute of Child Health & Development and the other by the Institute of Child Development from the University of Minnesota have both found that children who spend all day in daycare have higher levels of melody and aggression than kids who stay at home with moms. The research in the year 2010 confirmed these results. They show that it continues to negatively impact even after theyve reached adolescence. righteous like the other studies, biological psychologist Megan Gunnar and her colleagues found stress in babies.In their research, three-month old babies who received the mothers consistent care had less cortisol stress than those who did not (The Natural Child Project). On the other side, studies claim that children of working mothers have more chances of being successful in life. From 1975 to 1990, the work labor force for women has grown especially for those with children (Howard Hayghe 1998). Mothers like to be independent and have a feeling of satisfaction it makes them happier, therefore better mothers. They cant be fulfilling felicitous if the know someone else is enjoying them in daycare.According to the opponents, children who are in daycare starting from one month and on have a better language and cognitive ability than children at home. Due to this they will tend to have higher reading scores as well (Peters 1997). Because it is important to have a motherly figure during growth, as children behave better, and daycare is not the appropriate substitution for proper motherly care, mothers should take in mind of staying at home with their children. Children shouldnt be forced to a routine out of their reach. Not only will children of stay-at-home moms will be comfortable, but mom will too.

Hcm Chapter 10 11 12

CHAPTER 1 Social Ininfluenzaence The core that words, carry withs, or presence of commonwealth meet on our posts, conceptions, feelings and doings Construal The sort people interpret the hearty environment. (How do you cons trustworthy some unmatcheds fashion? Is it polite, rude etc? ) Individual differences aspects of individualalities that firebrands people unique Social psych analyses the individual in the context of a social office, and it aims to nominate universal human nature traits that makes everyone susceptible to social influences, disregardless(prenominal) of social class or culture vestigial attri exception error xplaining our own or other peoples sort based on character characteristics alone. Underestimates social influence Behaviorism Approach to under substructureing style through only if re datarcing properties of events. (Positive, negative, penalisation, operant conditioning) Gestalt psych Studies subjective way in which an object appears in pe oples minds, rather than the objective, sensual attributes of the subject. Like perceiving a painting as a whole instead of the sum of its carve ups. Self-esteem The degree to which one views oneself as good, competent and decentSocial cognition how people select, interpret, remember and exercise social information to make judgments and decisions. CHAPTER 2 Hindsight Bias Exaggeration of how much one could predict an outcome after knowing that it already happened Observational method No random assignment, not experimental, view and record measurements of natural behavior Difficult to analyse certain behavior which occur r arly or in private (peoples testamentingness to help a rape victim Ethnography Study of cultures by observing from the inside ie being a part of it Interrater reliability eliability of an experiment based on level of proportionateness from 2 or much strong-minded judges Archival analysis Secondary source information based on historic records a deal(p) news newsprints, diaries etc. But information is limited and may be incomplete or inaccurate, and there is no way to prove it Correlational method 2 variables that be measured and threadar relationship observed Correlation coefficient degree to which 2 variables are at a time related to one another Surveys Asked questions just squiffyly attitudes or behaviorCan judge relationship between variables that are difficult to observe and are capable of sampling representative segments of the population Random selection To escort good representation. Experimental method random assignment to different conditions, ensuring that there is no bias Each respondent has equal chance of being picked with no bias. Ensures conditions are identical except for the independent variable Independent variable Variable that is changed to expect if it has an burden on some other variable helpless variable Variable that is influenced by the independent variable.Dependent variable depends on the level of independent variable. p-value Significant if the value is less than 5% that the results might be payable to chance factors. Internal validity Degree to which items within the test measure the construct. Nothing besides the independent variable can affect the dependent variable. By controlling for all extraneous variables and random assignment External validity Extent to which experiment can be generalised to other situations Psychological world extent to which psychological process in an experiment are comparable to those that occur in everyday lifeCover story disguised version of a studys true purpose. This increases psych authenticism as the story makes people feel they are in a real event. Field research Increases external validity by examine behavior outside the lab in natural settings Replications Ultimate test of external validity. Generalised to different settings, people etc. Meta-analysis Averages results of 2 or to a greater extent than studies to see if the effect o f an independent variable is reliable. Basic research Done pu assert out of curiosity to find answers Appevasivenessd research Intends to solve limited problems Cross-cultural researchResearch done with other cultures to see if psychological processes are present or if unique to certain cultures Informed consent Agreement to participate, full sentiency of the nature of experiment that is justifyed in advance Deception Mis leading(p) participants around true purpose of study Institutional review board reviews reasearch and its ethicality before allowing it to be conducted. must include at least 1 scientist, nonscientist and psyche nonaffiliated with institution. Debriefing Explaining to participants the true purpose of study and what transpired at the end of the experiment. CHAPTER 3 Automatic opinionUnconscious, involuntary, passing(a) Controlled ideateing is to a greater extent(prenominal) effortful and deliberate Schemas mental structures that organise our knowledge arou nd the social world, which influence the information we notice, think and remember. Applied to race or sex, schemas are stereotypes. We leave schemas because they help us figure out whats going on. Accessibility extent to which schemas and concepts are at the forefront of peoples minds and therefore likely to be used when making judgments about the social world. Priming Automatic thinking. Process by which recent experiences increase accessibility of a schema, trait or concept. ome chronically accessible due to past experience constantly active and ready to use to interpret questionable situations accessible because it is related to a current mark accessible because of recent experiences Self-fulfilling Prophecy Prediction that causes an event to come true based on compulsory reinforcements between belief and behavior Peoples expectations of what another is like - influences how they act to the person - causes a reaction consistent with peoples original expectations - makes ex pectations come true Often occurs but in some occasions, peoples true nature will win out in social interactionJudgmental heuristic mental strategy and shortcut to make quick and effective judgments. Using schemas. Availability heuristic Basing a judgment on self or others on the ease with which you bring something to mind. Linked to accessibility. But some propagation what is easily recalled is not typical of boilersuit picture, leading to wrong conclusions Representativeness heuristic Classifying something according to how similar it is to a typical possibility. Like how similar Wang Nan is to all China people. Or scoring well in tests because asian Base Rate Information Information about relative frequency of members of different categories in the populationContents of our Schemas is influenced by our culture Differences in Western and easterly Culture Western Analytic Thinking focusing on properties of objects without considering surrounding context (individualistic culture in fluence) Eastern Holistic Thinking focus on the overall context, in ways that objects relate to each(prenominal) other (collective culture) Controlled thinking thinking that is conscious, intentional, voluntary and effortful. Can switch on and off at will. Counterfactual thinking mentally changing some aspect of the past as a way of imagining what might have been. Aiyah why never get gold but i got silverThought suppression Attempt to avoid thinking about something we would prefer to forget. Like ex gf, stomachache etc. Monitoring process automatic part, searches for certify that the un insufficiencyed thought is about to intrude the consciousness. Then the operating process controlled part comes into play. The effortful attempt to distract oneself by finding something else to think of. When one is leave outing in dexterity or preocloving cupied (under cognitive load), the operating process lets the intruding thought go unchecked leading to hyperaccessibility the unwanted th ought occurs with high frequency The ore you try not to think of something, the more it intrudes. Overconfidence barrier People usually have too much confidence in the accuracy of judgments (sure pass sure this sure that) break this barrier by addressing overconfidence directly, giving possibility of them being wrong teach people directly some basic statistical and methodological principles to learn how to reason correctly, and hoping they will apply these principles CHAPTER 4 Social Perception study of how we form impressions of and make seeences about others Nonverbal communication how people communicate intentionally or unintentionally without words. ody language, touch etc. Mirror neurons brain cell that respond when we perform an action and when we see someone else perform the same action. When people yawn, we yawn. automatically and involuntarily. Encode Express nonverbal behavior like smiling Decode To interpret the moment of nonverbal behavior. was the smile genuine or sar castic 6 major emotions that can be recognised cross-culturally happiness, sadness, fear, anger, surprise, disgust. Maybe contempt and pride. Affect blends one part of the face registers one emotion while another part registers a ifferent emotion. blend of anger and disgust. This makes decoding sometimes inaccurate Display rules particular to each culture, and dictate the type of emotions people should show. Emblems gestures with clear, well understood definitions middle finger, gangsta Implicit record theory Type of schema used to separate various in the flesh(predicate)ity traits together. Someone who is kind is also generous Relying on schemas might lead us to make wrong assumptions, might even resort to sterotype One cultures unstated personality theory might be different from another.America has Artistic personality but Chinese have no schema for that. Attribution theory how we infer causes of peoples behavior Internal attribution Attribute a behavior to someones personal traits didnt give money cos selfish External attribution Attribute behavior to a situation outside of persons traits didnt give money cos train was coming Covariation model To form a rational and logical attribution about what caused a behavior, we note the pattern between the presence or absence of possible causal factors and whether or not the behavior occurs. why she dont lend me? did she use to lend me? does she lend to others? Consensus information extent to which others behave the same way towards the same stimulus as me (low consensus boss only yells at me) Distinctiveness info how the actor responds to other stimuli (low specialness boss yells at others too) Consistency information frequency with which the observed behavior between same actor and same stimulus occur over time and circumstance (high consistency boss yells at me everytime he sees me) When the above info combine into a pattern, attribution is made.Internal attribution consensus and forte low, consistency h igh External attribution consensus, distinctiveness, consistency high Situational attribution assumes something unusual because consistency low. People rely more on consistency and distinctiveness info and less on consensus info. Correspondence bias Tendency to infer that peoples behavior corresponds to their dispositions and personality. I sit on reserved seat because i am disrespectful Perceptual salience seeming importance of information that is the focus of peoples attention. If we cant see the situation, we ignore its importance. e pay attention to people instead (easier to see than the situation) and tend to think that they cause their own behavior. Two step process of making attributions 1. Internally attribute. (quickly and spontaneously) 2. Then adjust this attribution by considering the situation the person was in. But often, we dont adjust enough, and when we are distracted or preoccupied, we skip this step, making an complete internal attribution. (requires effort and conscious attention) if we consciously slow down and think carefully, and if were motivated to reach an accurate judgment, we will go the 2nd step.Actor/observer difference tendency to see other peoples behavior as caused by personality but to see ones own behavior as caused by situations Because of perceptual salience notice others behavior more than the situation. notice our own situation more than our behavior. What is most salient to me? i dont always look inwards. I look outward and therefore my situation more than myself. Because of information availability. I know more about myself so have more consistency and distinctiveness information about myself. and therefore EXTERNALLY ATTRIBUTE. Self-serving attribution endency to take credit for my advantage by internal attribution, but unsaved others or situation for failure. Really just want to maintain self-esteem by doing so. We also just want others to think well of us. Due to the type of information available to people, I know i didnt score well for the test because it is unfair. I know i am smart. but my teacher thinks i am stupid. Different info. Defensive attributions explanations for behavior that defend us from vulnerability and mortality feelings believing that bad things only happen to bad people. or terminal diseases happen to us and we take steps to deny the fact. Belief in a just world) In countries with extreme rich and poor, just world beliefs are more common, studyd with countries with more evenly distributed wealth. Self-serving bias prevalent in many westward societies but less in Asian cultures where values of modesty and harmony is value (china, japan etc) Individualistic cultures look outside themselves to explain failure Collectivistic cultures look inward to explain failure, garnering sympathy and compassion which strengthens harmony between people CHAPTER 5 Self-concept knowledge about who we are Self-awareness act of thinking about ourselvesCocktail party effect in a crowd ed room yu catch someone say ur name with selective attention. after hearing own name in inapplicable stream, percentage of errors for the relevant stream increased spotlight effect mistaken impressino that ppl are noticing u actually only 23% Self-awareness and self-concept combine to create identity. As children, we have concrete self-concepts, referencing clear-cut observable characteristics like age, sex, hobbies. As adults, we emphasise psychological states and considerations of how others judge us Independent view of self Defining oneself in terms of ones own internal thoughts, feelings, and actions.Interdependent view of self Defining oneself in terms of relationships with others and recognising that behavior is often determined by thought, feelings, and actions of others. Westerns take more to independent sense of self than Asian culture. Women have more relational interdependence focusing more on relationships. More likely to discuss emotions than men manpower have coll ective interdependence focusing on memberships in larger groups. Like sports teams Self-awareness theory when people focus attention on themselves, they evaluate and compare behavior to internal standards and values. hen people are self-aware, it reminds them of a sense of unspoiled and wrong and are less likely to err. East asians likely to have outside perspective of self (how others see them). Western have insider perspective (individualistic) Causal theories Theories about what influences feelings and behavior like absence makes the heart grow fonder Reason-generated attitude change attitude change resulting from thinking about the reasons for your attitudes. you assume your attitude matches the reasons that are plausible and easy to verbalise. break up because she chews gum loudly.Self-perception theory when our feelings and attitudes are uncertain, we infer the feelings by observing our behavior and the situation which it occurs. We infer only when we are not sure how we fee l. And we judge whether our behavior really reflects how we feel or because it is the situation that made us act that way. not sure if i like classical music. but i listen to 92. 4 willingly. therefore i must love classical music. if gf listens to korean song and not me who tuned in, then i am unlikely to conclude that i listen because i like it Intrinsic motivation esire to engage in an activity because i enjoy it Extrinsic motivation desire to engage because of the rewards that come with it According to self-perception theory, If i were initially intrinsically motivated, but was instead paid to do it, the motivation will slowly change to extrinsic and ill eventually lose pure interest for it. Over- vindication effect results when i view my behavior as caused by extrinsic reasons, making me underestimate the extent to which the behavior is caused by intrinsic reasons Task-contingent rewards rewards for doing a task regardless of resultsPerformance-contingent rewards rewards from ho w well i perform a task 2 factor theory of emotion idea that emotional experience is a result of a 2-step self-perception process in which i first experience physiological arousal then seek an appropriate explanation for it. Misattribution of arousal making mistaken inferences about what is causing them to feel the way they do standing on a swaying bridge and receiving a request to do a survey from a chiobu. your initial heightened heart rate due to the scary bridge is misattributed to u liking the young lady Appraisal theories of emotionYour emotion depends on the way you interpret or explain the event, in the absense of psychological arousal. You want to go med sch. your friend gets in instead. you feel threatened and therefore moody. Fixed mindset we have a set measuring rod of an ability that cannot change. fixed intelligence, athletic ability etc. likely to give up after setbacks. less likely to hone skills Growth mindset abilities are malleable qualities that can cultivate a nd grow. view setbacks as opportunities to improve Social comparison theory learn about own abilities and attitudes by comparing with othersDownward social comparison compare with someone lousier to feel better about myself Upward social comparison compare with someone better to have a finish to strive towards Social tuning groups of friends or people adopting similar attitudes through social influence Self-regulatory resource model stats that we must have plenty of energy when we are trying to control our actions. Suggests that the level of glucose in the bloodstream is spent when we conserve self-control Impression management attempt to get others to see me the way i want to be seen. FacebookIngratiation using flattery or praise to make myself likeable to another, often a higher-status person (ANGKAT) self-handicapping people create obstacles and excuses for themselves so if they do poorly on a task, people avoid blaming themselves. Self-handicap by creating obstacles that reduc e the likelihood they will succeed on a task. So if they fail, they blame on these obstacles rather than escape of ability. Includes drugs, alcohol, failure to prepare Also by devising ready-made excuses in case they fail. Test anxiety, moods, symptoms, events from the past.We may evntually entrust the excuses and uphold less effort in future. People dislike others who self-handicap so they run the risk of informal sanctions. Eastern cultures like to save face more than western cultures, and have a more independent view of themselves than ang moh. CHAPTER 6 Cognitive dissonance the feeling of discomfort when you hold 2 or more discrepant cognitions. caused by an action that is usually against ones usual, typically positive self-conception reduce dissonance by changing behavior ( check into smoking) changing dissonant cognitions (nah.. igs dont cause cancer) adding new cognitions (my grandfather smoke so much also never kena) people experiencing dissonance deny or distort reality to reduce it. Impact bias when people think of how they will react to future negative events, they overestimate the intensity of duration of their negative emotional reactions. Like overestimate emo-time when u break up The need to maintain self-esteem leads us to rationalise our behavior, which may not be rational thinking. Post-decisional dissonance when after making a decision you believe more in your choice and devaluate the rejected choice. he more important and more difficult to revoke the decision, the greater the dissonance. eg which car to by vs which cup irrevocability of a decision always increases dissonance and the motivation to reduce it. lowballing technique initially quote low scathe, after customer decides to buy, say it was an error, actual price is higher. frequently customer will still buy. Because there is already a commitment of sorts. Decision to behave immorally Cheating if u didnt see the chem paper you wouldnt have gotten into SMU Dissonance theory says ill justify the action by minimising the negative aspects of the action i chose. . e. changing my attitude about cheating that it is not so bad and everyone does it. In terms of personal values the cheat and non-cheat initially starts at the same attitude. after one decides their path, the attitude towards cheating diverges sharply as a consequence of actions, moving towards one extreme (from its not bad vs its not good diverge to cheating is no big deal. vs expel cheaters ) apology of effort tendency for individuals to increase their liking for something they worked hard to attain. the tougher the initiation, the more we like the group (go OCS i like it so much)External justification reason for dissonant personal behavior that resides outside the individual, in order to receive a large reward or avoid severe punishment friend altered an nauseating dress so now cannot return. since she already changed it, just tell her u like it. you dont want to hurt her by saying it sucks. Inter nal justification lessening of dissonance by changing something about oneself like attitude. when cannot find external justification, will attempt to find internal. if the same friend is very rich and buying another dress isnt a problem, your external justifying reasons for lying to her is minimal. o you experience internal justification, by noticing some good things about the dress. eventually, you will like the fugly dress. This is counterattitudinal protagonism occurs when we claim to have an opinion that differs from our true beliefs. when we do this with little external justification, and more internal justific, we will believe its more and more like the lie we told. Hypocrisy induction arousal of dissonance by making statements that counter peoples behaviors and then reminding them of the inconsistency between what they advocated and their behavor.This purpose is to lead individuals to more responsible behavior counterattitudinal advocacy example. people who are made mindful of their hypocrisy between the statements they make and their initial beliefs begin to practice what they preach. Insufficient punishment dissonance when individuals lack sufficient external justification for having resisted a desired activity or object, usually resulting in devaluing the forbidden activity or object. skimpy punishment causes insufficient external justification, which makes one internally justify. eg. child bully. f punishment is harsh sufficient external justification (i dont beat him cos teacher will cane). if punishment is mild, (why am i not beating him up? ) the bully will refrain from beating, even though he wants to. but he lacks complete justification for not beating, so he will reduce dissonance by convincing himself that he does not really want to beat up the guy. blue reward or mild punishment leads to internal justification - self-persuasion - lasting change. Self-persuasion long-lasting form of attitude change that results from attempts at self-just ification. ore permanent that direct attempts at persuasion by others because persuasion takes place internally. Ben franklin effect when we do a favour for a person we do not like, we will end up liking the person more. How do u hate your victims? convince yourself that the ppl u killed are less than human convince yourself they deserved to be hurt similar to nazis convincing themselves jews are subhuman Dissonance-reducing behavior less prevalent in collectivist cultures on the surface. Also may be that self-justification occurs in collectivistic societies in more communal ways. In japan, dissonance reduced after saying a boring task is interesting.In addition, if a jap observes a person he knows and likes saying the that the boring task is interesting, he himself will experience dissonance and change attitudes. CHAPTER 8 Conformity Changing ones behavior due to real or imagined influences of others Informational social influence influence of others leads us to conform because we see them as a source of info to guide behavior. We believe that others interpretation of an ambiguous situation is more accurate than ours, and will help us choose an appropriate course of action. women learning what an attractive body is from family, friends and media. ens body must be muscular (mens health, gyms etc) Private acceptance conform to behavior of others because genuinely believe that the other people are correct Public compliance conform to behavior of others without necessarily believing what they do is correct. to avoid looking silly or foolish. By wanting to get things right, you are more susceptible to informational social influence. In low importance conditions conform to others less than in high importance conditions. (same answers for CAT and AS midterm) The more important the decision is to us, the more we will rely on others for information.Contagion rapid spread of emotions or behavior through a crowd eg mass panic of war of the worlds Mass psychogenic illn ess concomitant of similar physical symptoms with no known physical cause in a group of people. begins with one or a few reporting physical symptoms, then others who observe these sick people were more likely to fall sick too. Mass media also disseminates mass psychogenic illness quickly. maybe H1N1 swine flu n sars. Ambiguous situation The more uncertain you are, the more u will rely on others. Crisis situation we see how others respond and do in addition (stampedes) When others are experts he more expertise a person has, he will be a valuable guide in an ambiguous situation Social norms rules for acceptable behaviors, values and beliefs deviants can be ridiculed, punished, rejected Normative social influence when influence of others leads us to conform to be liked and current by them. (all the 369 tattoos on forehead) results in public compliance and not necessarily private acceptance we tend to wear whats stylish but do u really believe that mat caps are that nice? womens atte mpts to create ideal body that u learnt through informational influence. men go gym Asch line (long line study) onformity occured because of fear of being the lone dissenter we conform for normative reasons because we dont want social disapproval even from complete strangers. also, we feel discomfort and tension when we stand up for beliefs and go against the group What if you resist normative social influence? group will try to align you with their beliefs by increased communication through teasing and long discussions if all fails, then start to say negative things and withdraw from me Cultural definitions of attractive body changes throughout the years. last time, fat girl was attractive, because looks healthy and fertile.Today, models all so skinny. Jap culture places great emphasis on conformity than american culture. Normative jam to be skinny is more for Japs than americans Social impact theory likelihood that i respond to social influence by others depends on strength how i mportant to me is the group? immediacy how close is the group to me in space and time during the attempt to influence me? number how many people in the group? conformity will increase as the factors above increase. Group size and social impact Conformity increased when no of group increased. beyond 3 people, conformity does not increase much.Groups we identify strongly with and we like will exert more normative influence on us. Conforming to a group earns idiosyncracy credits (can occasionally deviate from group norms without sanction) When no one else in the group believes the same as you, normative social influence is the highest. You tend to conform to them. But if you have 1 ally, pressure to conform greatly decreases. (12 outraged men example) when groups culture is collectivistic, people are highly conforming because of factors like cooperation and loyalty. Conformity in collective cultures is a valued trait. but in western it is a negative trait.Hunting/Fishing culture (west ern) values assertiveness and independence. Agriculture (eastern) values value cooperative, conformity. Minority influence case where minority of group members influence behavior of majority. through consistency. keep expressing the same view, and different members of minority must agree with one another. majority eventually takes notice. minorities exert influence through informational means, not normative. Majorities obtain public compliance through normative influence Minorities obtain private acceptance through informational influence. 12 angry men best example. Injunctive norms eoples perceptions of what behaviors are clear or disapproved by others. Motivate behavior through punishment or rewards. Littering is wrong. DO NOT LITTER more powerful in the face but promote normative conformity. (public compliance) Descriptive norms perceptions of how people actually behave in given situations, regardless of whether behavior is approved by others or not. Motivate behavior by informi ng people about what is effective or adaptive behavior. Littering is wrong (injunctive). There are times where people are likely to litter (Descriptive norms) LITTERING IS NOT WHAT PEOPLE DO HERELess powerful in the face but promote informational influence. creates positive change. Boomerang effect by giving an average as a norm, people who usually did less than the average might end up change magnitude the activity to meet the average, thereby defeating the purpose of decreasing the undesirable behavior. For example alcohol drinking. descriptive norm + injunctive norm mixed messages will have a positive effect on cutting down undesirable behavior. you used this much energy. On average, households use x amount of energy a day (descriptive what society does).You used X+2 energy ( (the face showing disapproval is injunctive what is viewed as wrong. ) Obedience to authority behavior of soldiers made killing seem like the right thing (informational influence) and soldiers wanted to avoid rejection from others (normative influence) my lai village massacre. Milgrams studies Authority say it is essential you continue difficult to say no to egregious authority Normative influence acting on their influence in order to be accepted by others When the authority left the room lack of informational influence When authority was replaced by a regular person he lacks expertise, no incentive to followImportance of authority figures when 2 authority figures disagreed about whether to continue the study, thereby creating ambigous definition of the situation, 100% of the participants stopped conforming. Other reasons we obey Conforming to the wrong norm Once u follow one norm, it is hard to switch midstream. (slowly realising that delivering electric automobile shocks was not good but still continued) Difficult to abandon the obey authority norm in Milgram because experiment was fast-paced, preventing reflection on the situation. of self-justification. Initial agreement to d o the test created internal pressure to obey subsequently.As participants delivered each shock, they justified in their heads, and each successive ladder made it hard to decide when to stop (215 and 230 volts not much different) of loss of personal responsibility. Experimenters are responsible for end results, and i am just following orders Unethical studies have Deception secrecy true purpose of the study No true informed consent not told of the full details of study Psychological distress Not told they had right to withdraw Inflicted insight when the study ended, some learnt things about themselves that they didnt agree to beforehand (like obey orders to hurt someone)